​the Social Exchange Framework of Marriage and Family Operates From a Premise of _____.

Learning Outcomes:

At the finish of this chapter you lot will be able to do the post-obit.

Explain the major assumptions of each of the theoretical perspectives.

Compare and contrast the 3 major theoretical perspectives.

Apply theory to issues of the family.

M AKING S ENSE OF A BSTRACT T HEORIES

Sociological theories are the core and underlying forcefulness of the discipline. They guide researchers in their studies; they too guide practitioners in their intervention strategies. And they will provide you lot with a basic understanding of how to run across the larger social pic in your own personal life. A theory is a set of interrelated concepts used to describe, explain, and predict how society and its parts are related to each other. Let's use binoculars every bit a metaphor to illustrate the usefulness of a theory. Binoculars serve to magnify, enlarge, clarify, and expand our view of the thing we are looking at. Unlike binoculars, you can't see or touch a theory, simply it is a framework to help you "meet" the world sociologically. Some things you want to await at need 20×80 force binoculars while you lot might meet other things better with viii×forty or ten×thirty lenses. It's the same with society. Some things demand the lens of Conflict Theory, while others demand a Structural Functional or Symbolic Interactionist lens. Some social phenomena tin be viewed using each of the three frameworks, although each volition give you lot a slightly dissimilar view of the topic nether investigation.

Theories are sets of interrelated concepts and ideas that take been scientifically tested and combined to magnify, overstate, clarify, and expand our understanding of people, their behaviors, and their societies. Without theories, science would be a futile exercise in statistics. In the diagram below you tin meet the procedure by which a theory leads sociologists to perform a sure type of written report with certain types of questions that can test the assumptions of the theory. One time the study is administered, the findings and generalizations tin be considered to encounter if they support the theory. If they do, like studies will be performed to repeat and fine-melody the procedure. If the findings and generalizations practise not support the theory, the sociologist rethinks and revisits the assumptions s/he fabricated.

Hither's a real-life scientific case: In the 1960s two researchers named Cumming and Henry studied the processes of aging. They devised a theory on aging that had assumptions built into information technology. These were, only put, that all elderly people realize the inevitability of death and begin to systematically undo from their previous youthful roles while at the aforementioned fourth dimension society prepares to undo from them.¹ Cumming and Henry tested their theory on a large number of elderly persons. Findings and generalization consistently yielded a "no" in terms of back up for this theory. For all intents and purposes this theory was abased and is only used in references such as these. Theories take to be supported by research and they as well provide a framework for how specific research should be conducted.

Theories can be used to report society–millions of people in a state, land, or even at the world level. When theories are used at this level they are referred to every bit macro theories , theories which best fit the study of massive numbers of people (typically Conflict and Functional theories). When theories are used to report small groups or individuals, say a couple, family, or team, they are referred to as being micro theories , theories which best fit the study of small groups and their members (typically Symbolic Interactionism). In many cases, any of the iii main theories can be applied at either the macro or micro levels.

Permit's consider the 3 major theoretical perspectives 1 at a time.

C ONFLICT T HEORY

The Conflict Theory is a macro theory designed to report the larger social, global, and societal level of sociological phenomena. This theory was founded by Karl Marx. Marx was a witness to oppression perpetrated by society's elite members against the masses of poor. He had very piddling patience for the capitalistic ideals that undergirded these powerful acts of inhumane exploitation of the average person. Later Max Weber further developed this sociological theory and refined information technology to a more moderate position. Weber studied capitalism further but argued confronting Marx's outright rejection of it.

Conflict theory is especially useful in understanding: war, wealth and poverty, the "haves" and the "accept-nots," revolutions, political strife, exploitation, divorce, ghettos, discrimination and prejudice, domestic violence, rape, child corruption, slavery, and more conflict-related social phenomena. Conflict Theory claims that guild is in a state of perpetual conflict and competition for limited resource. Marx and Weber, were they alive today, would likely employ Disharmonize Theory to report the unprecedented bond outs by the U.S. government which have proven to be a rich-to-rich wealth transfer or to help guide the caption of private health care companies benefiting from illness and poverty.

Conflict Theory assumes that those who "accept" perpetually endeavour to increment their wealth at the expense and suffering of those who "have-non." It is a ability struggle which is near oft won by the wealthy elite and lost by the common person of common ways. Those who "have" are those who possess power. Ability is the power to go what one wants even in the presence of opposition. When ability is institutionalized, we telephone call information technology authority. Authorisation is institutionalized, legitimate power. Past institutionalized we hateful making something (for instance a concept, a social part, detail values and norms, or modes of behavior) become embedded inside an organisation, social system, or society as an established custom or norm within that system. ²

By far the "haves," in Marx's terms, the suburbia or wealthy aristocracy are the imperial, political, and corporate leaders, have the most power. The bourgeoisie are the Goliaths in society who oft bully their wishes into outcomes. The "take-nots" or Marx'southward proletariat are the common working class, lower class, and poor members of gild. According to Marx (run into diagram beneath) the Bourgeoisie and Proletariat cannot both have it their way and in order to offset the wealth and power of the Bourgeoisie the proletariat often rise upward and revolt against their oppressors (The French, Bolshevik, United states of america, Mexican, and other revolutions are examples).

Effigy 1. Photo Montage of Haves and Have Nots in a U.S. Neighborhood. ⁱⁱⁱ

Marx and Weber realized that societies have unlike social classes and a similar pattern of relatively few rich persons in comparison to the majority who are poor. The rich call the shots. Await beneath at the photographic montage in Figure 1 of homes in one U.S. neighborhood which were run down, poor, trashy, and worth very trivial. They were on the west side of a gully and frustrated many who lived on the eastward side who were forced to drive through these slums to attain their own mansions.

The Conflict Theory has been repeatedly tested against scientifically derived data and information technology repeatedly proves to take a wide application among many different levels of sociological study. That is non to say that all sociological phenomena are conflict-based. Merely, virtually Conflict theorists would argue that more often than not Conflict assumptions exercise apply.

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM THEORY

The Functionalist Theory claims that society is in a country of balance and kept that way through the function of order's component parts. Club can be studied the same way the man body tin be studied: past analyzing what specific systems are working or not working, diagnosing bug, and devising solutions to restore balance. Socialization, religious involvement, friendship, health intendance, economical recovery, peace, justice and injustice, population growth or decline, community, romantic relationships, spousal relationship and divorce, and normal and aberrant family unit experiences are just a few of the evidences of functional processes in our gild.

Functionalists would agree with Conflict Theorists that things break downwards in society and that unfair treatment of others is mutual. These break downs are called dysfunctions, which are breakdowns or disruptions in gild and its parts that threaten social stability.

Enron'due south collapse, the ruination of 14,000 employees' retirement funds, the loss of millions in shareholder investments, and the serious doubt it left in the heed of U.South. investors about the stock market'south credibility and reliability which lasted for nearly a decade are examples of dysfunctions in the economic sector of the economy. Functionalists besides look at two types of functions, manifest and latent functions. Manifest functions are the apparent and intended functions of institutions in society while latent functions are the less apparent, unintended, and oft unrecognized functions in social institutions and processes.

Back to Enron, the government'southward manifest role includes regulation of investment rules and laws in the stock market to ensure credibility and reliability. After the Enron plummet, every company offering stocks for trade underwent a government supervised audit of its accounting processes in social club to restore the public trust. For the well-nigh part residue was restored in the stock market place (to a certain degree at least). There are yet many imbalances in the investment, mortgage, and cyberbanking sectors which accept to be readjusted; but, that'due south the point-society readjusts and eventually recovers.

Does the government as well provide latent or accidental functions to society? Yes. Take for instance U.Due south. war machine bases. Of all the currently open U.Southward. military bases, all are economic boons for the local communities surrounding them. All provide jobs, taxes, tourism, retail, and government contract monies that would otherwise become somewhere else. When the discussion about endmost military machine bases comes up in Washington DC, Senators and members of Congress become to work trying to keep their customs's bases open.

As you can already tell, Functionalism is more than positive and optimistic than Disharmonize Theory. Functionalists realize that just similar the body, societies get "ill" or dysfunction. By studying society's parts and processes, Functionalists can better sympathise how guild remains stable or suit to destabilizing forces when unwanted change is threatened. According to this theory well-nigh societies find that healthy residue and maintain it; if they don't then they collapse equally many accept in the history of the world. Equilibrium is the state of rest maintained past social processes that help society accommodate and compensate for forces that might tilt it onto a path of devastation. Thinking back to the Conflict example of the gully separating extremely wealthy and poor neighborhoods, look at the Habitat for Humanity picture in Figure 2. Functional Theorists would say that component parts of society respond to dysfunctions in ways that assist to resolve problems. In this house the foundation was dug, poured, and dried within a calendar week. From the foundation to this point was 3 working days. This house is now finished and lived in, cheers mostly to the Habitat non-profit process and the work of many volunteers. Lots of homeless people are a dysfunction for society; think nigh what would happen if half of social club was homeless for example. And then some other part of order, the normative organization of Habitat for Humanity, steps in and makes adjustments; they buy lots, get donations and volunteers and build homes helping to bring society back into equilibrium.

South YMBOLIC I NTERACTIONISM T HEORY

Symbolic Interactionism claims that society is composed of e'er-present interactions among individuals who share symbols and their meanings. This is a very useful theory for understanding other people, improving communication, and in understanding cross-cultural relations. Values, communication, witch-hunting, crisis management, fear from crime, fads, dearest, evil and sin, what'due south hot and what's not, alien abduction beliefs, "who I am," litigation, mate selection, arbitration, dating joys and woes, and both personal and national meanings and definitions tin can all be better understood using Symbolic Interactionism.

One time you realize that individuals are, by their social natures, very symbolic with one some other, and so you begin to sympathize how to persuade your friends and family, how to

empathize others' points of view, and how to resolve misunderstandings. This theory is interested in meanings. Think about these three words, LOVE, Animalism, and LARD. Each letter is a symbol. When combined in a specific lodge, each word can be defined. Considering nosotros memorize words and their meanings we know that there is a hit difference between Dear and Lust. Nosotros besides know that LARD has aught to practice with either of the other two terms. Dissimilarity these give-and-take pairs hate versus hope, aid versus injure, advise versus abuse, and connect versus decadent. These words, similar many others comport immense meaning and when juxtaposed sound like the beginning of philosophical ideas.

Figure 2. Photograph of a Habitat for Humanity Home. ⁴

Symbolic Interactionism makes information technology possible for you to be a college student. It makes it and then y'all empathise your professors' expectations and know how to pace upwards to them. Our daily interactions are filled with symbols and an ongoing process of interactions with other people based on the meanings of these symbols. Accept you e'er had anyone you lot've greeted actually answer your question of "How are you?" Most of us never take. Information technology's a greeting, not a question in the U.South. culture and a Symbolic Interactionist would be interested in how it changed from a question to a greeting.

Symbolic Interactionism helps you lot to know what the expectations of your roles are and if yous perceive yourself equally doing a good job or not in meeting those expectations. TheThomas Theorem is often called the "definition of the situation." Information technology says that if people perceive or define something as existence real, then it becomes real in its consequences. An example of this is a adult female who was diagnosed equally HIV positive. She made her funeral plans, fabricated sure her children would be cared for then prepared to dice. Two-years later she was retested. It turned out her first test results were a false positive, yet she acted as though she had AIDS and was certainly going to die soon from it. She inverse how she saw her remaining days. In a hypothetical case, a famous athlete (you pick the sport) defines himself as invincible and also famous to be held legally answerable for his criminal behavior. He is subsequently establish guilty for a criminal offence. A hypothetical political leader (you pick the party and level of governance) believes that his/her constituents volition tolerate anything and so he/she engages in morally undesirable behavior. The point is that when nosotros define our state of affairs as being real, nosotros deed as though information technology is existent (regardless of the objective facts in the matter).

One of the major realizations that comes with Symbolic Interactionism is that you begin to understand the other people in your life and come to know that they are neither right nor incorrect, just of a different point of view. They define social symbols with varying meanings. To understand the other person's symbols and meanings is to approach a mutual ground. Listen to this argument by Rosa Parks (1913-2005), "All I was doing was trying to get home from work." In 1955 when she refused to give up her seat on the omnibus to a White person, information technology proved to exist a spark for the Civil Rights Motility that involved the leadership of Martin Luther Male monarch Jr. and many other notable leaders. Information technology was Rosa Parks' uncomplicated and honest statement that made her deed of defiance so meaningful. The lion's share of the nation was collectively tired and sick of the mistreatment of Blacks. Many Whites joined the protests while others quietly sympathized. After all that was written in the history books most information technology, a elementary yet symbolic gesture past Rosa Parks started the healing process for the The states. Table one provides a quick reference for comparing the three major sociological perspectives.

T HEORIES D EVELOPED FOR U NDERSTANDING THE F AMILY

Over the years researchers have found the necessity to develop theories of behavior that are specific to family settings. These theories have been developed past people with a variety of areas of emphasis, from family unit therapists to gerontologists to child development specialists. In this affiliate we will briefly talk over vi such theories: Family unit Systems, Family Developmental, Life Course, Social Exchange, Ecological, and Feminist.

F AMILY Due south YSTEMS T HEORY

When agreement the family, the Family Systems Theory has proven to be very powerful. Family Systems Theory claims that the family unit is understood all-time past conceptualizing it equally a complex, dynamic, and irresolute drove of parts, subsystems and family members. Much like a mechanic would interface with the reckoner system of a broken down car to diagnose which systems are broken (transmission, electric, fuel, etc.) to repair it, a therapist or researcher would interact with family unit members to diagnose how and where the systems of the family unit are in need of repair or intervention. Family unit Systems Theory comes under the Functional Theory umbrella and shares the functional approach of considering the dysfunctions and functions of complex groups and organizations. To fully sympathize what is meant by systems and subsystems look at Effigy 3 which depicts Juan and Maria's extended family system.

Table 1. Comparing the 3 Major Sociological Theories.5
	Conflict	Structural Functionalism	Symbolic Interactionism
	Macro	Macro	Micro
	Inequality lies at the cadre	Uses biological model	Guild is an ongoing
	of guild which leads to	(society is similar a living	procedure of many social
	conflict	organism)	interactions
	Resources are limited	Society has interrelated	Interactions based on
	Power is not evenly	parts	symbolic context in which
	distributed	What are functions or	they occur
	Competition is inevitable	dysfunctions of parts	Subjective perceptions are
	(winners & losers)	Society finds balance and is	critical to how symbols are
	Negotiations based on	stable	interpreted
	influence, threats,	Equilibrium	Communications
	promises, and consensus	Society adjusts to maintain	Meanings
	Threats and coercion	rest	Roles
	Any resources can be used	How are parts integrated	Self
	as tool of ability or	Manifest functions	Reality shaping in self and
	exploitation	Latent functions and	with others
	War is natural	dysfunctions	Social structure of reality
	Haves and have nots		Thomas Theorem
	Privileges are protected		Definition of situation
	by haves
	Order is challenged by
	take nots

Figure three. Juan and Maria's Extended Family System.

Juan and Maria are a middle-anile couple. Juan is a professor who lives with his parents, his wife's widowed mother, his ii children Anna and José, Anna's married man Alma and the 3-month old triplets Anna just delivered. Notice that Maria'southward begetter has passed away, and so he has an X over his place in this diagram. Because Juan is financially established, he can back up the large extended family. This represents a 4-generation complex family unit system. There are 3 couples living within this dwelling house, Juan and Maria, Grandpa and Grandma, and Alma and Anna. Merely there are various levels of strain felt by each couple.

Today multi-generational family systems are becoming more common, but are typically three generations where the married adult kid and his or her spouse and children move back home. Juan and Maria raised their two children Anna and José with tremendous support from grandparents. Maria'southward mother was a college graduate and has been a big aid to José who is a sophomore in college and a basketball squad member. Juan's mother and father are the oldest family members and are becoming more dependent. Juan's female parent requires some daily care from Maria. In fact, Maria has the virtually individual strain of any family member in this family organisation. Juan and Maria have each felt a strain on their marriage because of the strains that come from each subsystem and family unit member who depends upon them. They both have in-laws in the house, they both contribute to the care needs of the elderly family unit members, and they both try to support their son's basketball games and tournaments. But maybe most stressful is that in that location are three brand new babies in the house (meet Effigy iv).

Those new babies have strained the entire family system, but extreme strain lands on Maria because Alma is a second year medical student and spends long hours in course and grooming. Anna is extremely overwhelmed by canteen-feedings, diapers, and other hands-on babe care demands. So, Maria is supporting both her daughter and three grandsons, but it'due south overwhelming.

Maria is the Matriarch of this family organisation. She simultaneously belongs to the following subsystems, Girl-Female parent; Daughter-in-police force-Begetter & Mother in law; Spousal; Mother-Son; Mother-Daughter; Mother-in-constabulary-Son-in-police force; and Grandmother-grandchildren. A large number of subsystems in 1's life does non automatically imply strain or stress. By looking at the family as a circuitous system with inter-locking and interdependent subsystems, solutions can be constitute amid the members of the system and subsystems.

This brings upward the upshot of boundaries. Boundaries are distinct emotional, psychological, or physical separateness between individuals, roles, and subsystems in the family unit. Boundaries are crucial to healthy family functioning.

F AMILY D EVELOPMENTAL T HEORY

Family Developmental Theory dates back to the 1930s and has been influenced by sociologists, demographers, and family and consumer scientists, also as others. It is used to explain patterns of change, the dynamic nature of families, and how change occurs within the family life cycle. Family Developmental Theory was originally focused on stages of the family life cycle. Co-ordinate to Evelyn Duvall the stages are as follows. Stage 1: Married Couples without Children. Stage 2: Childbearing Families which starts at the nascence of the starting time child and continues until the oldest child is 2½ years quondam. Phase 3: Families with Pre-School Children where the oldest child is 2½ -vi years old. Phase 4: Families with Schoolchildren where the oldest child is 6-13 years old. Phase 5: Families with Teenagers where the oldest child is 13-20 years old. Stage half-dozen: Families as Launching Centers. This starts when the first child leaves habitation and continues until the last child leaves home. Phase 7: Middle-Age Parents which continues until retirement. Phase eight: Crumbling Families which continues until the death of 1 spouse.6

Effigy 4. Extended Family Arrangement Strain on Maria.

Theorists found over time that many families did not fit this model. For example many children who had launched had returned to the family home, often with children of their ain. Newer models of this theory focused more on the roles and relationships within the family. The theory still focuses on developmental tasks which are the growth responsibilities that arise at certain stages in the life of the family. To be successful, family members demand to adjust to irresolute needs and demands and to nourish to tasks that are necessary to ensure family survival.

The major assumptions of this theory include the importance of individual development just stress that the development of the group of interacting individuals is most important. Developmental processes are inevitable and important in understanding families. Growth from one stage to another is going to happen. Families and individuals alter over a period of fourth dimension–they progress through a serial of like developmental stages and face similar transition points and developmental tasks.

To empathise the family nosotros must consider the challenges they face up in each phase, how well they resolve them, and how well they transition to the side by side stage. The success or difficulty of achieving the developmental tasks in each stage leads to readiness for the adjacent stage. The major criticism of this theory is its lack of ability to account for unlike family forms, and gender, ethnic, and cultural differences. It isn't culturally relevant or sensitive to other life fashion choices (east.g., childless families).7

T HE Fifty IFE C OURSE P ERSPECTIVE

The life course perspective is prominent within the fields of family unit sociology and crumbling. It is a lens with which to view the age-related transitions that are socially created and are recognized and shared by members of a society. It aids in our agreement of alter among individuals and populations over fourth dimension by looking at the interrelation between individual biography and historical social structures.eight

The life course perspective is a theoretical framework that focuses on the timing of events that occur in an private's lifetime. A life course view of marriage is of an ongoing career that occurs within the context of other life course events.⁹ The essential elements of the life grade perspective include five themes: ane.) multiple time clocks, 2.) social context of development, 3.) dynamic view of process and alter, 4.) heterogeneity in structures and processes, and v.) a multidisciplinary view.

The first chemical element is a focus on multiple time clocks or events that impact the individual. These multiple time clocks include ontogenetic, or private, time which is comprised of personal events, generational fourth dimension which consists of family transitions or events, and historical time which refers to social events. It is crucial to recognize the importance of the interactions of these time frames, since for instance historical events volition touch on individual's life trajectories, such equally the events of war or economic depression. Changes over historical time, such equally the advent of no-fault divorce interact with generational time to increase the number of children whose parents divorce, which in turn interacts with individual time and may bring about a personal pick to divorce.

Second, the social context of development is likewise a focus of this perspective. One's location within the broader social structure, the social creation of meanings, cultural context and change, and the coaction of macro- and micro-levels of development play an important office in the life class perspective.

Tertiary, the life grade perspective has a dynamic view of procedure and change. It focuses on the dialectic of continuity and change in human development. Age, catamenia, and cohort effects are linked by their interaction with one another link microlevel and macrolevel phenomena. This perspective allows the researcher to disentangle the effects of age, period, and cohort to obtain a more accurate moving-picture show of family dynamics. Age furnishings are an artifact of maturation of individuals while period furnishings influence the life courses of individuals beyond birth cohorts. Accomplice effects cause a differentiation in life patterns of consecutive nativity cohorts.¹⁰

The quaternary theme of the life course perspective looks at heterogeneity in structures and processes. It acknowledges diversity across the range of patterns–increasing diversity over time with age at the cohort and private level, and diversity over time with social change.

The fifth theme emphasizes the utility of multidisciplinary perspectives on development. Development is biological, psychological, and social and all of these perspectives must be considered when studying human being development.¹¹

The life course perspective is non only a variation of developmental theories since the latter emphasizes a normative sequence of stages in one's life. The life grade perspective acknowledges the variance in the possible sequence of events, as well equally, the omission of some events, such as not having children. This perspective also acknowledges the effect of social and historical events on the private'southward life course (e.chiliad., war). Life course scholars as well are enlightened of the intra-cohort differences that are influenced past these social and historical events. The life form perspective views matrimony as the uniting of two dissever life histories which have been influenced past social events of the by and volition be influenced by social events of the futurity.¹²

S OCIAL East XCHANGE T HEORY

Social exchange theorists focusing on marital quality and stability have posited that individuals counterbalance the costs and benefits of mate choice and of remaining in a marriage. We expect to this theory to explain why an individual might remain in a dissatisfied marriage. Barriers to change and attractiveness of alternatives are the main elements of social commutation theory when used to guide the investigation of divorce.^thirteen

There are several terms which are cardinal to social commutation theory that must be defined prior to a discussion of the theory. Outcomes are those rewards or costs which are received or incurred by actors from each other in an exchange relationship. Outcomes tin can exist positive (rewards) or negative (costs) and social exchange theory makes no supposition near whether an individual volition view a particular outcome as positive or negative (e.g., some individuals view divorce as positive while others view it every bit a negative outcome). The theory simply assumes that beliefs is consistent with what individuals value in their lives. Rewards may be concrete, social, or psychological. Costs can be viewed as negative or as forgone rewards. Resources are possessions or behavioral capabilities (human capital) which take value to others and to oneself (due east.m., a husband's chore and income have value to his married woman). When one resource outweighs another resource and so it may go a bulwark (e.chiliad., the married woman'due south income may exist a resources that enables her to leave the marriage, but her married man's income may be so great that it may be a barrier to leaving since she won't exist able to savor the life to which she has go accustomed without his income).¹⁴ Barriers are the costs of making a choice.¹⁵ Several studies detect when barriers are many and alternatives are few individuals may remain in dissatisfied marriages.¹⁶

Alternatives are the variety of possible commutation relations available to individuals. An individual'south alternatives are those opportunities which produce outcomes which have value to the individual. These outcomes may exist exchange relationships with other individuals. In the study of divorce, alternatives are to remain married or to divorce. There are costs and rewards associated with alternatives (e.g., the psychological cost of staying in a poor quality spousal relationship, the cost of paying bills on one income associated with divorce) and social commutation theory implies that individuals endeavour to weigh rewards and costs when making decisions about alternatives.¹⁷

Individuals are dependent on each other in an exchange relationship and the outcomes which are valued by the individuals are contingent on the exchanges made with the other. Exchanges tin can be ane-sided (asymmetrical) or reciprocal.¹⁸ An individual may requite to another without receiving annihilation in return or may receive without giving. Individuals tend to influence each other by considering their partner's previous choices when making their own choices. Non only is a memory of past costs and rewards used in determining present exchanges, a forecast of future costs and rewards is considered also.¹⁹ When an commutation human relationship is imbalanced, the individual who is less dependent will take the well-nigh power, or the power advantage.²⁰ For example, a woman who has no higher instruction and lacks a stable job that provides her with a expert income is more than dependent on her husband, who earns the household income, than he is on her.

Exchange relations take place over time. They are not single transactions. For social exchange relationships to form and be ongoing, the value of the exchange to each of the individuals in the relationship must be greater than the perceived value of the potential alternatives. For example, as long as the value of the marital relationship is perceived to exist greater than the perceived value of divorce, the individuals volition remain in the marital relationship. Notwithstanding, in some cases individuals will remain in combative relationships considering the alternatives are perceived every bit even less desirable than the marital relationship (e.yard., women in unsatisfying relationships with no educational activity, no personal income, and many children to support) or because there is threat of punishment from the spouse (e.g., women in abusive relationships whose spouses threaten impairment to them or their children if they leave). Social commutation theory acknowledges individuals do not e'er act rationally, but assumes those departures from rational behavior will follow predictable patterns.²¹ This theory assumes that humans act rationally when deciding on an exchange; however, this is not always true.²²

Due east COLOGICAL T HEORY

The major assumptions of Ecological Theory are that humans are interdependent with the environment; the whole arrangement and its parts are interdependent and operate in relation to each other; a change in whatever part of the arrangement affects the system every bit a whole and besides the other parts of the organization; all humans are interdependent with the resource of the world; the family is the foremost setting in which evolution occurs; the family interacts with more than one environment; interactions are regulated by the laws of nature and human-derived rules. Figure 5 shows the model with its systems. It is depicted every bit concentric circles with the person of interest in the center. Each larger circle is a system that is less directly continued to the individual in the eye although it does have some influence over the person.

The microsystem is the immediate social settings which an private is involved in. There is focus on contiguous interactions. Family, schoolhouse, work, church building, and peer groups are typically inside the microsystem. The mesosystem links 2 microsystems together, direct or indirectly. For example, a x-year old child is at the centre of the model so his family unit is 1 of his microsystems and his classroom at schoolhouse is another microsystem; the interaction is these two is ane of his mesosystems. An example of this interaction is a parent-teacher conference.²³

Effigy v. Parts of the Homo Ecological Theory Model. ²⁴

The exosystem are settings in which the person does not actively participate but in which pregnant decisions are made affecting other individuals who exercise interact directly with the person. Examples of a child'south exosystem would exist neighborhood/community structures or parents work environment. The macrosystem is the "blueprints" for defining and organizing the institutional life of the social club, including overarching patterns of civilization, politics, economy, etc. The chronosystem encompasses alter or consistency over fourth dimension in the characteristics of the person and the environment in which the person lives (due east.g., changes in family structure, SES, place of residence and community, society, cultural, and historical changes).²⁵

An example of how we might view a child of divorce with the Ecological Theory would be that his family unit configuration has changed (microsystem); i parent doesn't come to parent-teacher conferences anymore (mesosystem); his mom has to go a full time chore and work more hours and exist away from him for more hours per day (exosystem); social club's views of divorce may make it easy or difficult for him to deal with the divorce (macrosystem); and his SES may have declined, his family structure has inverse, his place of residence may have inverse. An Ecological Theorist would start his research by investigating these areas of the child's life.

F EMINIST F AMILY T HEORY

Feminist theory is a theoretical perspective that is couched primarily in Conflict Theory assumptions, but has added the dimension of sexual practice or gender to the report of gild. Feminist theorists focus on the inequality of ability between men and women in society and in family life. The feminist perspective is nearly option and about every bit valuing the choices individuals make.²⁶ Feminist theories are a group of theories which focus on four of import themes: recognition of women's oppression; an examination of what contributes to the maintenance of that oppression; a commitment to ending the unjust subordination; a futuristic vision of equality.²⁷

Women's subordination appears in works of Plato, who believed that men were more virtuous by nature, and others who believed men had more than intellectual and reasoning capabilities. Following the industrial revolution, the women's motility emerged in the 19th century. Elizabeth Cady

Stanton established the National Organization of Women (At present). Susan B. Anthony was called to represent the Suffragists (women who worked for the vote for women) because of her less radical views. By the 1880s in that location was widespread support for obtaining the vote. Many believed women deserved the vote due to their maternal virtues while others believed women and men were equal in endowments. Women won the right to vote in 1920. In the 1960s there was a resurgence of the feminist move which grew from the movement for the rights of African Americans. This wave of the feminist movement focused on equal pay for equal work, dissatisfaction and depression among American housewives, and power as key to the social construction of gender.²⁸

The major assumptions of feminist theories are that women are oppressed; a focus on the centrality, normality, and importance of women's experience; gender is socially synthetic; the analyses of gender should include the larger socio-cultural context; and the term "family unit" supports women'due south oppression because it contains form, cultural, and heterosexual biases.²⁹

Liberal feminists believe gender should non be a bulwark since men and women are endowed with the same rational and spiritual capacities. They are committed to social and legal reforms that will create equal opportunities for women, ending sex bigotry, and challenging sex stereotyping.³⁰ Social feminists believe women are oppressed by capitalism. Their focus is on redefining capitalism in relation to women'south piece of work. Radical feminist theories insist the oppression of women is fundamental. Radical feminists believe the current patriarchal system must be eliminated. Attention is directed towards issues of the torso such every bit men'southward control over women'due south sexuality and reproduction, and men'southward employ of rape and violence to violate women.³¹

The strengths of feminist theories are that they can be applied to a wide range of issues and they provide valuable critique of other theories and perspectives that lack a focus on gender and power. These theories are limited in that research and practice are often emotionally charged and there can be an overemphasis on gender and power.³²

1. Maddox et al. (1987). The Encyclopedia of Aging. New York: Springer.
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutionalisation
3. © 2009 Ron J. Hammond, Ph.D.
4. © 2009 Ron J. Hammond, Ph.D.
5. Prepared past Ron J. Hammond, Ph.D. 2008
6. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Family%20Developmental%20Theory.htm
7. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Family%20Developmental%20Theory.htm
8. Elder & O'Rand. (1995); Hagestad & Neugarten (1985)
9. Esterberg et al. (1994)
10. Elder & O'Rand. (1995)
11. Bengtson & Allen. (1993)
12. Liker & Elder. (1983).
13. Albrecht, Bahr, & Goodman. (1983); Heaton & Albrecht. (1991)
14. Klein & White. (1996); Molm & Melt. (1995)
15. Klein & White. (1996)
16. Levenger. (1976); Thibaut & Kelly. (1959); White & Booth. (1991)
17. Klein & White. (1996); Molm & Cook. (1995); Nye. (1982)
18. Lewis & Spanier. (1979); Molm & Cook. (1995)
19. Lewis & Spanier. (1979)
20. Molm & Cook. (1995)
21. Klein & White. (1996); Molm & Cook (1995)
22. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Social%20Exchange%20Theory.htm
23. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Human%20Ecological%20Theory.htm
24. http://www.sasklearning.gov.sk.ca/branches/psych_portal/images/ecological_model1.jpg
25. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Human being%20Ecological%20Theory.htm
26. http://hhd.csun.edu/hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
27. Avis, 1986
28. http://hhd.csun.^edu/hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
29. http://hhd.csun^{. edu /}hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
30. Osmond & Thorne, 1993
31. http://hhd.csun^{. edu}/hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm
32. http://hhd.csun^{. edu/}hillwilliams/542/Feminist%20Family%20Theory.htm

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-marriageandfamily/chapter/1-family-theories/

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